Abet——教唆、唆使、煽动
①To approve, encourage, and support (an action or a plan of action); urge and help on. ②To urge, encourage, or help (a person): abetted the thief in robbing the bank.
This word is usually applied to aiding in the commission of a crime. The word abet is most commonly used as part of the comprehensive phrase aid and abet.
【注】 指鼓动、煽动或怂恿别人做某事,特指实施犯罪。经常用在“怂恿并教唆”短语中。这种行为称之为教唆或实施教唆,实施这种行为的人称为教唆犯。教唆犯不同于从犯。从犯必须在犯罪进行时在场并鼓励或帮助主犯。犯罪前进行的帮助主要是同谋与促成犯罪,犯罪后进行的帮助如逃跑,均不构成教唆;只是犯罪时到场,并且未阻止犯罪也不构成教唆。教唆犯以前在重罪中,作为第二级主犯承担刑事责任。现在,在任何情况下,教唆犯都是作为主犯来承担责任的。(见《牛津法律大辞典》,光明日报出版社1988年版,第2页)
Abscond——潜逃、避债
to travel covertly out of the jurisdiction of the courts, or to conceal oneself in order to avoid their process.
【注】 秘密地躲藏起来以躲避逮捕或诉讼。
accessory——从犯
An accessory is a person who assists in the commission of a crime, but does not actually participate in the commission of the crime as a joint principal. The distinction between an accessory(从犯) and a principal(主犯) is a question of fact and degree:
●The principal is the one whose acts or omissions, accompanied by the relevant mens rea(犯罪意图), are the most immediate cause of the actus reus (Latin for "guilty act",即犯罪行为).
●If two or more people are directly responsible for the actus reus, they can be charged as joint principals (see common purpose. The test to distinguish a joint principal from an accessory is whether the defendant independently contributed to causing the actus reus rather than merely giving generalised and/or limited help and encouragement.
In some jurisdictions, an accessory is distinguished from an accomplice(同谋、帮凶), who normally is present at the crime and participates in some way. A person who incites another to a crime will become a member of a conspiracy if agreement is reached, and may then be considered an accessory or a joint principal if the crime is eventually committed.
The concept of accessory is part of English common law, and been inherited by those countries with a more or less Anglo-American legal system. The concept is less used in countries with completely different legal traditions. The specific terms accessory-before-the-fact and accessory-after-the-fact are more commonly used in England and the United Kingdom than in the United States and are more common in historical than in current usage.
【注】 从犯,是相对于主犯在犯罪活动中的地位而言,是指在共同犯罪中起次要或者辅助作用的罪犯。从犯可为:(一)在共同犯罪中起次要作用的。这种从犯在犯罪集团活动中,听从主犯的指挥,从事某一方面的犯罪活动;或者在一般共同犯罪活动中,虽然参与了实施犯罪,但没有直接造成严重的后果和情节不很严重。(二)在共同犯罪中起辅助作用的。这种从犯一般是为共同犯罪活动提供犯罪工具、指点犯罪地点和对象、窥探被害人的行踪、排除障碍、创造有利条件,事先允许窝藏其他共同犯罪人和窝赃、销赃等等。他们都不直接参加实施犯罪的行为。
从犯,不同于同谋。
Accelerated Rehabilitation——察看、察看期
Also called AR. A program that gives persons charged with a crime or motor vehicle violation for the first time a second chance. The person is placed on probation for up to two years. If probation is completed satisfactorily, the charges are dismissed.
【注】 当一个因犯罪或机动车辆违法而被控告时将被给予一个察看期。察看期一般是2年。察看期如果满意的话,控告将被取消。
Accused——被告
The generic name for the defendant in a criminal case.
【注】 Accused通常指刑事案件的被告,民事诉讼的被告称为Defendant;而申索案件中的被索偿的一方称为Respondent(答辩人)。
Acquittal——罪名不成立、宣判无罪
to be found not guilty of a violation of law.
【注】 刑事案件经审讯后,被告罪名不成立被释放,称为“The accused is acquitted”。Acquittal是名词。
Assault——殴打、侵犯
At common law, an intentional act by one person that creates an apprehension in another of an imminent harmful or offensive contact.
An assault is carried out by a threat of bodily harm coupled with an apparent, present ability to cause the harm. It is both a crime and a tort and, therefore, may result in either criminal or civil liability. Generally, the common law definition is the same in criminal and tort law. There is, however, an additional criminal law category of assault consisting of an attempted but unsuccessful battery.
Law.:①Sexual assault;②The crime of rape.
【注】 以武力侵犯他人的行为,称为Assault。一般性质的殴打,称为“Common Assault”;严重者称为Aggravated Assault;未经许可触摸他人身体,可以被控非礼,称为Indecent Assault。
『笺』 侵犯是通过明显的武力而实施的故意行为,无论在刑法还是民法上都导致侵权。刑法上,它还包括试图但未遂的侵袭。
另外,此词还指性侵害、强奸。
Bail——保释、保释金
Also called Bond. Money or property given to the court for the temporary release of a defendant, to ensure that the defendant will return to court.
【注】 刑事案中的嫌疑犯或被告,可以暂时被释放。保释可以是有条件的,也可以是无条件的。保释的条件包括缴交指定金额的保释金、提供人事担保及定时向警署报到等。
『笺』 根据《朗文法律词典》的介绍,保释是指“在被逮捕的人提供担保或者接受特定条件的情况下将其释放的制度”。保释制度发源于英国,大约形成于12-13世纪。波洛克和梅特兰认为保释制度直接产生于实际需要,而不是对抽象自由的热爱。英国《1976年保释法》第一条规定:(1)在某人被指控或被宣告有罪的程序中或者相关的程序中,可准予保释。(2)因为某一罪行被逮捕或正在被签发逮捕证的犯罪人可准予保释。法律倾向于给予任何被监控者保释,准予保释是常态,而不准保释反而有着十分严格的规定。
英美国家要求对于被逮捕的犯罪嫌疑人应尽快由法官或警察决定将其保释还是羁押,一般来说,保释的程序分为申请、听审、裁定以及救济四个阶段。
『笺』 在英美法系,保释制度已较为发达,立法趋于完善,司法实践经验也较为丰富。而我国的取保候审制度与之在某些做法上相似,但有本质的不同,且实际适用比例并不高,作用有限。毋庸讳言,在我国,犯罪嫌疑人、被告人的羁押率是很高的。高羁押率、长期羁押乃至超期羁押的危害极大。对于重罪嫌疑人来说,由于久押不决,给他们精神上造成巨大的痛苦;对于轻罪嫌疑人来说,则有可能其未决羁押期限超过了实际判处的刑期,从而给司法机关带来极大的尴尬与被动;对于未构成犯罪或者依法不应判罪的嫌疑人来说,则侵权性质更为严重,造成的损失往往无法补救。
Bond——保释、保释金
Also called bail. Money or property given to the court for the temporary release of a defendant, to ensure that the defendant will return to court. There are two kinds of bonds:
●Non-financial bonds: Non-surety bond where the defendant's signature alone guarantees the amount of bond and the defendant is not required to post any property or retain the services of a professional bail bondsperson as collateral.b) Promise to appear.
●Surety bond(履约保证): The court requires cash, real estate or a professional bail bondpersons signature as collateral before releasing the defendant back into the community. (The court may allow the defendant to post ten percent of the bond in cash to secure his or her release.)
【注】 保释分为无条件保释和有条件保释两种形式。最初的保释是嫌疑人用保证金作担保获得审前释放,接着出现了保证人保证的形式。而且保证金可以嫌疑人自己交,也可以由保证人交。以后保释逐步附加其他条件,称为有条件保释。有条件保释是指,如果决定保释而不附加条件将导致危险时,可附加以下一个或多个条件:(1)有一个明确的住址。(2)每天上午到当地警察局报到。(3)宵禁,即晚上不能出门。(4)缴纳保证金。至于保证金的数额,则根据嫌疑人的财产、涉嫌犯罪的轻重等情况来确定。(5)有防止逃跑的安全措施。(6)符合保释支持计划(即政府推行措施保证被保释人出庭)等等。无条件保释是指嫌疑人无条件获得保释。一般情况下,应无条件保释,实践中大多数为无条件保释。如情况变化,无条件保释可以转化为有条件保释。
『笺』 在英美国家,保释制度经过了很长的发展历程。目前,保释观念已经深入人心。保释制度赖以产生和发展的两个理论基础是:其一,任何公民都享有人身自由权。人身自由是公民的一项基本权利,即便存在着犯罪嫌疑,仍然应当尽量保证公民作为社会生活中的一员的自由。其二,是无罪推定原则。基于无罪推定原则,任何人在依法被判处有罪以前,都是无罪的,因此在等待法庭审理时,应享有自由的权利。
“保释是一种权利,而不是一种特权”,它与“人生来是自由的”这一天然权利是联系在一起的。既然是公民的权利,就不是司法机关恩赐的,而是依法享有的。基于这样一种司法理念,在英国,保释的适用范围是很广泛。从理论上说,无论什么性质的案件都可以适用保释。与美国的做法不同,在英国,保释并不仅仅因罪行的严重程度而被拒绝。在美国,谋杀、恐怖、有组织犯罪、国际走私犯罪均不予保释。在英国,案件的性质及严重程度并非拒绝保释的唯一理由(当然会有一定程度的影响)。
保释的例外即拒绝保释有三种情形:(1)有足够的理由相信不会按照保释要求出庭。如以前保释后有潜逃的记录而没有合理的解释等。(2)有足够的理由相信可能进一步犯罪。这是根据嫌疑人、被告人以前的经历与此次犯罪的性质等因素来判定的。(3)有足够的理由相信会威胁、干扰、伤害证人、妨碍司法程序正常进行。
Capital Felony——重刑罪
A criminal offense in which the death penalty may be imposed
【注】 罪名之一种,因其犯罪行为将导致被判死刑的罪。
Contempt of Court——蔑视法庭、蔑视法庭
A finding that someone disobeyed a court order. Can also mean disrupting court, for example, by being loud or disrespectful in court.
A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a court, showing disrespect for the judge, disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a fair trial. A judge may impose sanctions such as a fine or jail for someone found guilty of contempt of court. Typically judges in common law systems have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in civil law systems.
In English law (a common law jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the Contempt of Court Act 1981. Contempt may be a criminal or civil offence.
【注】 藐视法庭,是一种严重的罪行,可以被判罚款或监禁。藐视法庭包括不遵守法庭命令、违反对法庭作出的承诺,妨碍司法公正等行为。
『笺』 藐视法庭罪,其惩罚范围极其宽泛:凡不服从或不尊重法庭或法官、可能影响司法运作之言行,皆可入罪。蔑视法庭罪,部分是渊源于判例法,部分依据1981年《蔑视法庭法案》。
藐视法庭罪,是指负有举证责任的单位和个人迟延提交证据或者拒不提交证据;负有出庭作证的单位和个人无正当理由拒不出庭作证;负有协助法庭执行审判职务的义务拒不履行协助义务;拒不交纳法庭罚款;在法庭上辱骂或者殴打司法工作人员;对法官进行言语攻击和无理纠缠;聚众哄闹、冲击法庭、扰乱法庭秩序,情节严重的行为。
Date rape——约会强暴、约会时发生的强奸案
forcible sexual intercourse by a male acquaintance of a woman, during a voluntary social engagement in which the woman did not intend to submit to the sexual advances and resisted the acts by verbal refusals, denials or pleas to stop, and/or physical resistance. The fact that the parties knew each other or that the woman willingly accompanied the man are not legal defenses to a charge of rape, although one Pennsylvania decision ruled that there had to be some actual physical resistance.
【注】 被迫的性交行为如果发生在约会的时候,就称之为“约会强暴”,这同陌生人所犯的强暴行为一样罪恶。Date rape(约会强暴)是熟识者强暴(acquaintance rape)之一种,它比性骚扰(sexual harassment)的程度更加严重,但又和强奸不同。
Defalcation——盗用公款、挪用公款、侵吞公款
from Latin for "deduction," withholding or misappropriating funds held for another, particularly by a public official, or failing to make a proper accounting.
【注】 Defalcation(盗用/挪用/侵吞公款),源于拉丁语,意谓“扣除、减除”。此词指通过做假帐以扣交或盗用公款。
Defamation——诽谤
The publication of a statement that injures a person's reputation. Libel and slander are defamation.
【注】 Defamation(诽谤),即非法破坏他人名誉的行为,口头的毁谤和以书面的永久形式诽谤都可以构成民事索偿的理据或者刑事罪行。
『笺』 根据一般的解释,所谓诽谤指的是恶意的评议。但在法律立场上,各国对诽谤行为的构成,各有不同的解释。例如在英国,诽谤被定义为“可以使公民受到憎恨、嘲笑或藐视的表述”,“使公民在思维正常的人中对他的评价降低的表述”等。在美国,诽谤的代表性定义有多种。美国最高法院为诽谤所下的定义是:“诽谤乃对于尊严之损害,如无其他正常原因,而故意刊布有害于某个人记载,此种记载又为虚伪的、或对他人属实,而对此受害人个人则否者,亦应负一般的违法责任。”纽约州刑法第1340条规定: “怀有恶意出版文字、印刷品、图片、画像、标记或者其他非口头形式的物品,使活着的人或对死去的人的记忆受到憎恨、藐视、嘲笑或指责,使他人受到孤立或有受到孤立的倾向,或使他人或任何公司、社团在经验或职业上的名誉有受到损害的倾向,皆为诽谤。”
英美等西方国家的法律对“诽谤”的解释虽然不尽相同,但基本不出乎美国法学(American Law Institute)汇编的《民事侵权行为重述》这样的定义:“传播某种信息,这种传播倾向毁损他人名誉,以至于降低社会对他的尊重度,或阻止第三人与他产生关系,即为诽谤。”(See American Law Institute,Restatement of Torts,2d ed. Philadelphia:American Law Institute,1975)
False Imprisonment——非法监禁、非法禁锢、非法拘禁
depriving someone of freedom of movement by holding a person in a confined space or by physical restraint including being locked in a car, driven about without opportunity to get out, being tied to a chair or locked in a closet. It may be the follow-up to a false arrest (holding someone in the office of a department store, for example), but more often it resembles a kidnapping with no belief or claim of a legal right to hold the person. Therefore, false imprisonment is often a crime and if proved is almost always the basis of a lawsuit for damages.
【注】 False Imprisonment (非法禁锢):是指在一段时间内,不问该段时间如何短暂,非法施加全部控制,以剥夺他人的自由。该项控制可能是实际上的,也可能仅是权力的显示,有些甚至可能是在实施中,受害人并不知道有这回事。
False Imprisonment(非法禁锢)是一种刑事罪行,也是一种侵权行为,不单是指将受害人拘禁的行为,同时是指无合法理由而禁止他人自由离开的行为。触犯非法禁锢罪行,可以被警方控诉,也可以被受害人追讨赔偿损失。
Felony——重罪
a crime sufficiently serious to be punishable by death or a term in state or federal prison, as distinguished from a misdemeanor which is only punishable by confinement to county or local jail and/or a fine.
【注】 英美刑法将罪责分为两类:一类为Felony(重罪);一类为Misdemeanor(轻罪)。
Heat of passion——冲动杀人、激情杀人
in a criminal case, when the accused was in an uncontrollable rage at the time of commission of the alleged crime. If so, it may reduce the charge, indictment or judgment down from murder to manslaughter, since the passion precluded the defendant having premeditation or being fully mentally capable of knowing what he/she was doing.
【注】 所谓Heat of passion(冲动杀人),是指杀人者出于一时愤怒或情绪失控,在丧失理智的情况下非法剥夺他人生命的犯罪行为。激情杀人与其他类型的故意杀人罪的不同之处在于:它往往具有突发性、不可预测性、非预谋性。
Indecent exposure——露阴、猥亵性裸露、有伤风化的裸露
the crime of displaying one's genitalia to one or more other people in a public place, usually with the apparent intent to shock the unsuspecting viewer and give the exposer a sexual charge.
【注】 Indecent exposure(露阴),即在公共场合裸露、展示其生殖器。
Indeterminate sentence——不定期刑
the prison term imposed after conviction for a crime which does not state a specific period of time or release date, but just a range of time, such as "five-to-ten years."
【注】 Indeterminate Sentence(不定期刑)是一种特别的自由刑,其基本特征是在判决时只宣告罪名,不宣告确定的刑期,具体执行时间根据罪犯在行刑中的改造程度而定。不定期刑有绝对不定期刑和相对不定期刑之分,前者是指判决时宣告刑期的上限和下限,具体执行时间视改造效果而定;后者是指判决时只宣告罪名,而不宣告刑期,执行刑期长短完全以视改造情况而定。
『笺』 近代的不定期刑制度肇始于1796年美国密执安州的《三年法》,该法规定对妓女可以判处三年以下的不定期拘禁。1869年美国纽约州爱米拉教养院在监狱长布罗克伟的领导下,开始采用不定期刑,适用对象是16岁到30岁以下的青少年犯。此后,不定期刑被各州所采用。后来纽约等38个州的刑法以及联邦刑法对成年人也规定了不定期刑。澳大利亚、日本、英国、芬兰、瑞典等国家也先后采用了不定期刑制度。不定期刑也逐渐得到国际社会的肯定,1908年、1922年两届监狱会议均一致认为“不定期刑是刑罚个别化与矫正个别化之当然结果而促请各国采行此一制度”。
Insanity defense——精神病抗辩权,精神错乱抗辩权
the claim of a defendant in a criminal prosecution that he/she was insane when the crime was committed, usually only temporarily.
【注】 Insanity defense(精神错乱抗辩),是指被告在刑事诉讼中可以自己患有精神病为由进行抗辩以免除其刑事责任,因为其在犯罪时,神智不清,不能正常辨别事物。
『笺』 Insanity defense(精神错乱抗辩)常见于犯罪被告的申诉。最常见的是有感知的精神错乱(cognitive insanity),即因为遭受精神病而无法辨别是非,美国大部分的州都允许被告援引此以申辩。另一种是无意识的精神错乱,即虽能辨别是非,但不能控制其行为,在美国只有五个州允许被告援引该抗辩权以进行申辩。
不能将精神错乱抗辩和无行为能力相混淆,同时须将其与智力缺陷区别开来。
Justifiable homicide——正当杀人
a killing without evil or criminal intent, for which there can be no blame, such as self-defense to protect oneself or to protect another or the shooting by a law enforcement officer in fulfilling his/her duties. This is not to be confused with a crime of passion or claim of diminished capacity, which refer to defenses aimed at reducing the penalty or degree of crime.
【注】 justifiable homicide(正当杀人),是指在法律允许的范围内杀死他人的行为。最常见的如执行死刑所致的死亡,其次是为了保护自身生命或为了中止严重犯罪行为而迫不得已发生的杀人行为所致的死亡。如对正在施行很有可能危及自己或他人生命的犯罪,或持枪拒捕、逃跑的重大罪犯采取行动所引起的死亡;再如枪击越狱逃跑的罪犯或不听警告进入重要禁区、偷渡出境的人所引起的死亡;以及杀死正在盗窃重大国家机密者等。
Mailing Obscene Material——邮寄淫秽物品
it is a Federal crime or offense for anyone to use the United States mails to transmit obscene materials. A person can be found guilty of that offense only if all of the following facts are proved beyond a reasonable doubt: First: That the person knowingly used the mails for the conveyance or delivery of certain articles, as charged; Second: That the person knew at the time of such mailing the general nature of the content of the matter so mailed; and Third: That the matter so mailed was "obscene" as defined by law.
【注】 美国第一个制裁淫秽物品的邮政法是1865年通过的,但因政府无权从邮政中取缔淫秽物品,所以作用不大。实际发挥较大作用的是1873年通过的卡麦斯塔克法案(Comslock Act,先为纽约州反淫秽的法律)。该法案明确规定:所有淫秽书籍、小册子、图片等都不能邮寄;任何人初次违犯处以五千美元罚款和五年监禁,再犯则翻番。
Misappropriation——挪用
the intentional, illegal use of the property or funds of another person for one's own use or other unauthorized purpose, particularly by a public official, a trustee of a trust, an executor or administrator of a dead person's estate or by any person with a responsibility to care for and protect another's assets (a fiduciary duty). It is a felony (a crime punishable by a prison sentence).
【注】 未经物主同意,擅自取用他人的对象或金钱的行为,如果有证据显示挪用者有意永久占有该对象,则挪用者的行为属于侵占行为。
Mitigating circumstances——使罪行减轻的情节或行为
in criminal law, conditions or happenings which do not excuse or justify criminal conduct, but are considered out of mercy or fairness in deciding the degree of the offense the prosecutor charges or influencing reduction of the penalty upon conviction.
【注】 mitigating circumstances是指刑法中,基于被告的犯罪行为没有造成严重后果的,在量刑时可以适当给予减轻的情节。
Money Laundering——洗钱、洗黑钱
Conduct/acts designed in whole or in part to conceal or disguise the nature, location, source, ownership or control of money (can be currency or equivalents, eg. checks, electronic transfers, etc.) to avoid a transaction reporting requirement under state or federal law or to disguise the fact that the money was acquired by illegal means.
【注】 money laundering (“洗钱”),一词源于美国,最初它并没有非法活动的含义。20世纪初旧金山的一位饭店老板看到自己饭店收到的硬币经常是沾满油污,会弄脏顾客的白手套,于是让人将硬币用清洁剂洗干净,再投入流通使用。而洗钱被作为一种非法金融交易手段的专用名词,则是缘于20世纪20年代,美国芝加哥一个有组织犯罪集团的财务总管开设了一家洗衣店,购置投币洗衣机营业,然后在计算每天的营业收入时,将该集团的犯罪收益混入洗衣店的现金收入中一起申报纳税,从而掩饰犯罪收益的来源和性质,这是世界上最早的洗钱犯罪活动。
现代各国法律对洗钱(money laundering)的解释不完全相同,金融机构反洗钱(anti-money laundering)比较权威的机构巴塞尔银行法规及监管实践委员会,从金融交易角度对洗钱进行了描述:犯罪分子及其同伙利用金融系统将资金从一个帐户向另一个帐户作制服或转移,以掩盖款项的真实来源和受益所有权关系;或者利用金融系统提供的资金保管服务存放款项。
洗钱通常以隐藏资产来源为目的。典型的交易分三个过程:一、入账,即通过存款、电汇或其它途径把不法钱财放入一个金融机构;二、分账,也就是通过多层次复杂的转账交易,使犯罪活动得来的钱财脱离其来源;三、融合,以一项显示合法的转账交易为掩护,隐瞒不法钱财。通过这些过程,罪犯就可把非法所得转移并融合到有合法来源的资金中。
Pardon——赦免、宽恕
The action of an executive official of the government that mitigates or sets aside the punishment for a crime.
【注】 Pardon,指犯人透过赦免(或宽恕)而被撤销、减轻判罪或判刑,而当犯人被赦免(宽恕)后,他不可以再次因同一案件再被定罪。
Peeping tom——偷窥者、偷窥狂
a person who stealthily peeks into windows, holes in restroom walls or other openings with the purpose of getting a sexual thrill from seeing women or girls undressed or couples making love.
【注】 Peeping tom,是指偷看女性裸体、上厕所、洗澡或性行为以自娱,并从中享受一种不被人发现的快感。与此相对应的是暴露癖(exhibitionism)。
Presumption of Innocence——无罪推定、假设其无罪
In American law, one of the most sacred principles presumes a defendant innocent until proven guilty. What that means is the prosecution must prove beyond a reasonable doubt, each element of the crime charged.
【注】 所谓presumption of innocence(无罪推定),来自拉丁文praesumprio,也称“假定”。它是现代刑事诉讼法中的一项原则,其含义是:任何人在法院作出有罪判决之前,不得认为其犯罪,并处以刑罚。
所谓推定(presumption),是指依照法律规定或者由法院按照经验法则,从已知的基础事实推断未知的推定事实的存在,并允许当事人提出反证以推翻的一种证据法则。英美法理论上一般把推定分为:①不可反驳的法律推定(irrebuttable presumptions of law);②可反驳的法律推定(rebuttable presumptions of law),③可反驳的事实推定(rebuttablepresumptions of fact)。 此外,英国学者克劳斯(Cross)在学理上把推定作了另外的分类:①结论性推定。它是指没有任何证据能反驳推定事实。实际上相当于不可反驳的法律推定。②说服性推定。指运用足够的证据来说服凭盖然性的衡量,可以认定推定事实的存在与否。③证据性推定。即根据某种证据是否遭驳回来使案件当事人适用法律证明负担的有关规则。④临时性推定。即从某种策略角度来考虑采取反驳证据以促使法院认为某种推定事实的真实与否。
Slander——诽谤
Oral communication of false statements injurious to a person's reputation.
【注】 这些诽谤的行为是口头形式的,但并不是透过传播媒介而发出,且针对人的声名构成影响。